Int. J. Life. Sci. Scienti. Res., 4(5): 2044-2055, September 2018

 

Analysis of Changing Vegetation Pattern Under Different Climatic, Edaphic and Altitudinal Factors of Doon Valley, Uttarakhand, India

 

Narendra Kumar¹*, Kartik Uniyal², Zakir Nazir³

 

¹Assistant Professor cum Head, Department of Botany, Alpine Institute of Management & Technology, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

²Assistant Professor cum Head, Department of Biotechnology & Microbiology, Alpine Institute of Management & Technology, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

³Student, Department of Botany, Alpine Institute of Management & Technology, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

^*Address for Correspondence: Dr. Narendra Kumar, Assistant Professor cum Head, Department of Botany, Alpine Institute of Management & Technology, Dehradun, Uttarakhand -248 007, India

ABSTRACT - The present study was conducted in altitudinal variable hight and soil pH growing vegetation of Doon valley that the soil type found in Mussoorie is generally medium loamy but its composition, moisture, and pH generally varied from place to place. Higher silt in Mussoorie was due to higher precipitation in the form of winter snow above 1800 m. Soil temperature in Mussoorie ranged from 4⁰C-16⁰C, while that of Sahastradhara and sudhowala was 15-19⁰C. Soil organic matter content tended to be higher in high altitude and increased with increasing altitude. In this study, our finding observed that Soil temperature in Mussoorie ranged from 4⁰C-16⁰C, while that of Sahastradhara was 15-19⁰C, Sudhowala 15-25⁰C. Soil organic matter content tended to be higher in increase high altitudinal gradient.  As per altitudinal variation and soil pH in this region dominant family of angiosperms in Garhwal Himalaya are Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Ranunculaceae, Polygonaceae, Amaranthaceae, Solanaceae, Sexifragaceae, Ranunculaceae Orchidaceae, Apocynaceae, Rutaceae, and Rosaceae.

Keywords: Altitude, Altitudinal Factors Angiosperms, Phytodiversity, Species analysis, Vegetation Pattern, Edaphic

 

INTRODUCTION- Himalaya being the richest biogeographically zones in India is provided with diverse vegetation. The location, climate, topography and other environmental factors of Himalaya have enriched it with diverse life forms. The Himalaya blooming with rivers, frozen glaciers, high mountain peaks that remain loaded with snow for most of the time, evergreen lakes, with the enormous diversity of flora (50% of the Indian subcontinent) is rightly called as the “Abode of God”. Due to cyclic climate changes mainly by anthropogenic activities, floral diversity of Himalaya is influenced to a large extent.

Garhwal Himalaya is one among the most fascinating segment of a Himalayan arc and unique in its geology. Garhwal Himalaya is a great attraction to geologists and ecologists from all over the world because of its richness in biodiversity and it is the confluence of all rock formations resulting in different soil types and hence diverse vegetation types ^[1].

The Climate of Garhwal Himalaya varies from dry to moist conditions which have a great influence on growth, vitality, and distribution of floristic vegetation. Garhwal Himalaya is a mass of intricate folding and faulting and is composed of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks ^[2]. Garhwal Himalaya has been extensively surveyed in terms of vegetation by many workers and floral diversity has been explored to a large extent ^[3,4], since the native floristic biodiversity of these restored sites of Doon valley is facing serious threats from anthropogenic activities, urbanization, and climate change, so the main aim of the study was to analyze the present status of the angiospermic vegetation of these sites.

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study site- The present study was conducted in degraded and restored limestone mines of Doon valley, viz: Sudhowala, Sahastradhara, and Mussoorie. The areas were observed phytosociologically during February to May 2017.

Doon Valley (Area 3008 sq. km) is situated between foothills of Garhwal Himalaya and Shiwaliks at an altitude of 2200 ft. above sea level. The area lies between 30.3840 N and 77.9739 E and receives an annual rainfall of 2073.3 mm. The east and west boundaries of Doon valley are limited by rivers Ganga and Yamuna respectively.

The Climate of an area is temperate although it varies from tropical to cold depending on the season and altitude. The average maximum and minimum temperatures are 27.65⁰C and 13.8⁰C respectively ^[5]. The study area was divided into three sub-areas viz. Sudhowala, Sahastradhara, and Mussoorie. In the study site, different types of angiospermic families were recorded which show biodiversity variability with varying Soil pH and climatic condition.

 

Sampling- Soil samples were collected from three different sites (Sudhowala, Sahastradhara, and Mussoorie) from uppermost part (5”-8”) as well as dried properly and preserved for pH measurement.

 

Soil temperature measurement- The study area was repeatedly visited to measure the soil temperature by a soil thermometer. Temperature measurement was done on 26^th of Feb and ^5th of March in Mussoorie, 3^rd of March and 15^th of March in Sahastradhara and 20^th of Feb, 08^th of March and 18^th of March in Sudhowala.

 

Field survey and Data Collection- Extensive field surveys were conducted repeatedly from February to April in all the three different sites viz Sudhowala, Sahastradhara, and Mussoorie to observe the natural habitats and to collect the plant specimens. Various other parameters such as altitude, measurement of soil temperature and vegetation types were recorded. For plant identification purposes herbarium of Forest Research Institute of India and herbarium of Botanical Survey of India northern region were used. Plant specimens were classified on the basis of habit and life forms as by Raunkiaer ^[6] and distribution of pattern follows as per Odum ^[7].

 

Soil sample collection and Measurement of soil pH- Soil samples collected from all the three different sites were dried properly and sieved (2 mm). Different soil solutions were made by dissolving soil in distilled water. Analysis of soil pH and altitudinal variation was done as described by Schoenholtza et al. ^[8]; Raina and Gupta ^[9]; Arya ^[10].

 

RESULTS- Garhwal Himalayan is one of the most fascinating segments of the Himalayan arc and is unique for its geological setting, and so the unique floristic vegetation. A variety of factors contribute to the diversity of floristic vegetation in the study area. The dominance of Lantana camara, Ageratum conyzoides, Eupatorium adenophorum, Parthenium hysterophorus, Mallotous phillipensis, Shorea robusta, Amaranthus spinosus, Euphorbia hirta, Rumex hastatus, and Clerodendrum viscosum in the study area possibly shows the availability of optimum conditions for their growth. The uniform abundance of Lantana camera, Ageratum conyzoides, and Parthenium hystoriphorus is due to their environmental plasticity, as they are shade and light tolerant.

 

Soil pH of different regions of Doon Valley- Soil samples were collected from Mussoorie, Sahastradhara, and Sudhowala regions of Doon valley during February to April 2017. Soil samples were collected from the top soil (15 cm depth). Soil samples were stored under proper conditions and then were used for pH test by using Glass electrode pH meter. Soil temperature was measured by a soil thermometer.

(a) In Sudhowala region of the study area, soil pH varied from 5.4-7.40.

(b) In Sahastradhara region of study area, soil pH ranged from 5.5-7.80.

(c) In Mussoorie region of the study area, soil pH ranged from 5.2-8.20.

 

The possible reason for the low pH value of Sudhowala soil sample is due excessive leaching of minerals as compared to adjacent areas of Doon valley. The pH differed significantly between land use systems; soil pH of natural woodlands is lower than of remaining land use systems. During the study period the angiospermic plant diversity which includes herbs, shrubs, climbers, and trees at changing pH patterns in three different communities of Doon valley, the dicot families were found in abundance as compared to monocot families which contribute a little percentage.

In community 1^st as many as 33 angiospermic families having 62 genera and 76 species were observed, of which 7 were monocot families viz. Poaceae, Musaceae, Orchidaceae, Cannaceae, Zingiberaceae, and Liliaceae. Among monocot families, Poaceae is represented by the highest number of species (6). The important members of the family found in the study area are Cyanodon dactylon, Poa annua, Triticum aestivum, Dendrocalmus giganteus, and Saccharum officinarium. Dicots were mainly represented by Malvaceae, Solanaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, and Verbinaceae. Among dicots, Solanaceae showed the highest number of species (6) and is mainly represented by Datura stramonium, Solanum torvum, and Solanum melongena.

In community 2^nd a total of 35 angiospermic families having 59 genera and 65 species were observed, of which monocots were represented by only two families viz. Poaceae, and Cyperaceae. Poaceae showed the highest number of species, the important among them are Apluda mutica, Cynodon dactylon, Poa annua and Saccharum officinarium. Cyperaceae is represented by a single species Cyperus rotundus. Among Dicot families Solanaceae and Asteraceae showed the highest number of species (5 each). The important members of Solanaceae found in the area are Solanum nigrum, Lycopersicon esculentum, and Datura stramonium. The important species of the Asteraceae family found in the area are Eupatorium adenophorum, Xanthium indicium, Ageratum conyzoides, and Bidens biternata.

Furthermore, community 3^rd also showed similar results i.e. dominance of dicot families. A total of 30 families having 63 genera and 75 species of angiosperms and were observed, of which monocots were represented by only 3 families viz. Cyperaceae, Poaceae, and Melanthiaceae, all represented by a single species viz. Cyperus rotundus, Cyanodon dactylon, and Paris polyphylla respectively. Among dicots, family Rosaceae is represented by the highest number of species (12), the important members of the family found in the study area are Fragaria indicia, Rubus ellipticus, Rosa moschata, Prunus persica, and Pyrus pashia. Some other important dicot families found in this community are Ranunculaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Salicaceae, Rubiaceae, Asteraceae, Solanaceae, and Polygonaceae. At changing altitude and soil pH of three different sites of Doon valley, the angiospermic vegetation of different sites is given in three separate lists.

 

Table 1: Community first shown the following angiospermic plant species at a pH range of 5.4-7.40

 

S. No	Botanical name	Family	Division
1.	Mangifera indica	Anacardiaceae	Dicot
2.	Anacardium accidentale	Anacardiaceae	Dicot
3.	Gossypium hirsutum	Malvaceae	Dicot
4.	Sida acuta	Malvaceae	Dicot
5.	Sida cordata	Malvaceae	Dicot
6.	Datura stramonium	Solanaceae	Dicot
7.	Solanum torvum	Solanaceae	Dicot
8.	Lycopersicum esculentum	Solanaceae	Dicot
9.	Capsicum sp.	Solanaceae	Dicot
10.	Solanum xanthocarpus	Solanaceae	Dicot
11.	Solanum melongena	Solanaceae	Dicot
12.	Brassica oleracea	Brassicaceae	Dicot
13.	Brassica napobrassica	Brassicaceae	Dicot
14.	Raphanus sativus	Brassicaceae	Dicot
15.	Brassica rapa	Brassicaceae	Dicot
16.	Prunus persica	Rosaceae	Dicot
17.	Prunus domestica	Rosaceae	Dicot
18.	Mallotous philippinensis	Euphorbaceae	Dicot
19.	Euphorbia hirta	Euphorbaceae	Dicot
20.	Ricinus communis	Euphorbaceae	Dicot
21.	Musa accuninata	Musaceae	Monocot
22.	Phaseolus vulgaris	Fabaceae	Dicot
23.	Pisum saitivum	Fabaceae	Dicot
24.	Glycine max	Fabaceae	Dicot
25.	Desmodium gangeticum	Fabaceae	Dicot
26.	Trifolium repens	Fabaceae	Dicot
27.	Citrus aurantium	Rutaceae	Dicot
28.	Citrus limonum	Rutaceae	Dicot
29.	Murraya koenigii	Rutaceae	Dicot
30.	Carica papaya	Caricaceae	Dicot
31.	Lantana camara	Verbinaceae	Dicot
32.	Clerodendrum viscosum	Verbinaceae	Dicot
33.	Parthenium hysterophorus	Asteraceae	Dicot
34.	Ageratum conyzoides	Asteraceae	Dicot
35.	Xanthium indicum	Asteraceae	Dicot
36.	Eupatorium adenophorum	Asteraceae	Dicot
37.	Artemisia parviflora	Asteraceae	Dicot
38.	Callistemon lanceolatus	Myrtaceae	Dicot
39.	Morus alba	Moraceae	Dicot
40.	Bougainvillea sp.	Nyctaginaceae	Dicot
41.	Saccharum officinarium	Poaceae	Monocot
42.	Dendrocalamus giganteus	Poaceae	Monocot
43.	Polypogon fugax	Poaceae	Monocot
44.	Triticum spp.	Poaceae	Monocot
45.	Poaannua	Poaceae	Monocot
46.	Cyandon dactylon	Poaceae	Monocot
47.	Agave sisalana	Asparagaceae	Monocot
48.	Aspergus recemosus	Asparagaceae	Monocot
49.	Ocimum sanctum	Limaceae	Dicot
50.	Mantha longifolia	Limaceae	Dicot
51.	Rheum rhaponticum	Polygonaceae	Dicot
52.	Polygonium barbatum	Polygonaceae	Dicot
53.	Polygonium hydropiper	Polygonaceae	Dicot
54.	Daucus carota	Apiaceae	Dicot
55.	Apium graveolens	Apiaceae	Dicot
56.	Piper nigrum	Piperaceae	Dicot
57.	Vanilla planiflora	Orchidaceae	Monocot
58.	Calotropis procera	Apocynaceae	Dicot
59.	Thevetia paruviana	Apocynaceae	Dicot
60.	Catharanthus roseus	Apocynaceae	Dicot
61.	Ipomoea batates	Convolvolaceae	Dicot
62.	Ipomoea aquatic	Convolvolaceae	Dicot
63.	Ipomoea nil	Convolvolaceae	Dicot
64.	Canna indica	Cannaceae	Monocot
65.	Chenopodium album	Amaranthaceae	Dicot
66.	Amaranthus spinosus	Amaranthaceae	Dicot
67.	Pyrostegia venusta	Binoniaceae	Dicot
68.	Tecoma castanifolia	Bignoniaceae	Dicot
69.	Delphenium denudatum	Rannunculaceae	Dicot
70.	Shorea robusta	Dipterocarpaceae	Dicot
71.	Cannabis sativa	Canabaceae	Dicot
72.	Allium cepa	Alliaceae	Monocot
73.	Circuma longa	Zingiberaceae	Monocot
74.	Calotropis procera	Asclpedaceae	Dicot
75.	Papaver somniferum	Papaveraceae	Dicot
76.	Argemone mexicana	Papaveraceae	Dicot

 

Table 2: Community 2^nd shown the following angiospermic plant species at pH range of 5.5-7.80

S. No	Botanical name	Family	Division
1	Eupatorium adenophorum	Asteraceae	Dicot
2	Bidens biternata	Asteraceae	Dicot
3	Parthenium hystrophorus	Asteraceae	Dicot
4	Xanthum indicum	Asteracaea	Dicot
5	Ageratum conzoides	Asteraceae	Dicot
6	Lantana camara	Verbinaceae	Dicot
7	Clerodendrum viscosum	Verbinaceae	Dicot
8	Solanum nigrum	Solanaceae	Dicot
9	Solanum torvum	Solanaceae	Dicot
10	Solanum melongena	Solanaceae	Dicot
11	Datura stramonium	Solanaceae	Dicot
12	Lycopersicon  esculentum	Solanaceae	Dicot
13	Achyranthus aspera	Amaranthaceae	Dicot
14	Aerva sanguinolenta	Amaranthaceae	Dicot
15	Amaranthus spinosus	Amaranthaceae	Dicot
16	Chenopodium album	Chenopodiaceae	Dicot
17	Cynodon dactylon	Poaceae	Monocot
18	Poa annua	Poaceae	Monocot
19	Triticum aestivum	Poaceae	Monocot
21	Apluda mutica	Poaceae	Monocot
22	Pennisetum flaccidum	Poaceae	Monocot
23	Saccharum officinarium	Poaceae	Monocot
24	Cyperus rotundus	Cyperaceae	Monocot
25	Bombax cieba	Bombacaceae	Dicot
26	Utrica dioca	Utricaceae	Dicot
27	Boehmeria plahyphylla	Utricaceae	Dicot
28	Brassica compestris	Brassicaceae	Dicot
29	Polygonium hydropiper	Polygonaceae	Dicot
30	Polygonium barbatum	Polygonaceae	Dicot
31	Rumex hastatus	Polygonaceae	Dicot
32	Lepidagathis incurva	Acanthaceae	Dicot
33	Adhatoda vasica	Acanthaceae	Dicot
34	Sida cordata	Malvaceae	Dicot
35	Sida acuta	Malvaceae	Dicot
36	Sida rhombiflora	Malvaceae	Dicot
37	Sida cordifolia	Malvaceae	Dicot
39	Nepeta hindostania	Lamiaceae	Dicot
40	Ajuga bracteosa	Lamiaceae	Dicotf
41	Ocimum sanctum	Lamiaceae	Dicot
42	Ipomoea nil	Convolvulaceae	Dicot
43	Booerhaavia diffusa	Nyctaginaceae	Dicot
44	Rubus ellipticus	Rosaceae	Dicot
45	Fragaria indica	Rosaceae	Dicot
46	Dalbaragia sisoo	Fabaceae	Dicot
47	Desmodium gangeticum	Fabaceae	Dicot
48	Flemingia stroblifera	Fabaceae	Dicot
49	Reinwardtia indica	Linaceae	Dicot
50	Anagallis arvensis	Primulaceae	Dicot
51	Stellaria media	Caryophyllaceae	Dicot
52	Oxalis corniculata	Oxalidaceae	Dicot
53	Pellucida pepromia	Piperaceae	Dicot
54	Mallotus philippensis	Euphorbaceae	Dicot
55	Ricinus communis	Euphorbaceae	Dicot
56	Jatropha curcas	Euphorbaceae	Dicot
57	Aspergus filicinus	Aspergaceae	Dicot
58	Murraya koenigii	Rutaceae	Dicot
59	Acacia catechu	Mimosaceae	Dicot
60	Carissia opaca	Apocynaceae	Dicot
61	Centella asiatica	Apiaceae	Dicot
61	Salix tetrasperma	Salicaceae	Dicot
62	Randia spinosa	Rubiaceae	Dicot
63	Woodfordia fruticosa	Lythraceae	Dicot
64	Vitis himalayana	Vitaceae	Dicot
65	Ranunculus scleratus	Rannunculaceae	Dicot

 

Table 3: Community 3^rd shown following angiospermic plant species at a pH range of 5.2-8.20

 

S. No	Botanical name	Family	Division
01	Delphanium denudatum	Rannunculaceae	Dicot
02	Clematis Montana	Rannunculaceae	Dicot
03	Rannunculus laetus	Rannunculaceae	Dicot
04	Rannunculus hirtellus	Rannunculaceae	Dicot
05	Berberis asiatica	Rannunculaceae	Dicot
06	Schisandra grandiflora	Schisandraceae	Dicot
07	Argemone mexicana	Papaveraceae	Dicot
08	Stellaria media	Caryophyllacea	Dicot
09	Malva neglecta	Malvaceae	Dicot
10	Trifolium repens	Fabaceae	Dicot
11	Astragalus trichocarpus	Fabaceae	Dicot
12	Desmodium multiflorus	Fabaceae	Dicot
13	Indigofera heterantha	Fabaceae	Dicot
14	Uraria neglecta	Fabaceae	Dicot
15	Vicia augustifolia	Fabaceae	Dicot
16	Vicia sativa	Fabaceae	Dicot
17	Agrimonia pilosa	Rosaceae	Dicot
18	Cotoneaster acuminate	Rosaceae	Dicot
19	Fragria indica	Rosaceae	Dicot
20	Potentillia nepalensis	Rosaceae	Dicot
21	Potentillia fulgens	Rosaceae	Dicot
22	Prinsepia utilis	Rosaceae	Dicot
23	Prunus armeniaca	Rosaceae	Dicot
24	Prunus persica	Rosaceae	Dicot
25	Pyrus pashia	Rosaceae	Dicot
26	Rosa moschata	Rosaceae	Dicot
27	Rubus ellipticus	Rosaceae	Dicot
28	Rubus paniculatus	Rosaceae	Dicot
29	Woodfordia fructicosa	Lythraceae	Dicot
30	Punica granatum	Lythraceae	Dicot
31	Oenothera rosea	Onagraceae	Dicot
32	Hedera nepalensis	Araliaceae	Dicot
33	Cornus capitata	Cornaceae	Dicot
34	Cornus oblonga	Cornaceae	Dicot
35	Abelia triflora	Linnaeaceae	Dicot
36	Leptodermis lanceolata	Rubaceae	Dicot
37	Rubia cordifolia	Rubaceae	Dicot
38	Artemisia parviflora	Asteraceae	Dicot
39	Artemisia roxburghiana	Asteraceae	Dicot
40	Bidens pilosa	Asteraceae	Dicot
41	Anaphalis busua	Asteraceae	Dicot
42	Cirsium verutum	Asteraceae	Dicot
43	Eupatorium adenophorum	Asteraceae	Dicot
44	Eupatorium riparium	Asteraceae	Dicot
45	Inula cappa	Asteraceae	Dicot
46	Tagetes minuta	Asteraceae	Dicot
47	Taraxacum officinale	Asteraceae	Dicot
48	Youngia japonica	Asteraceae	Dicot
49	Jasminum grandiflorium	Oleaceae	Dicot
50	Solanum xanthocarpum	Solanaceae	Dicot
51	Solanum verbascifolim	Solanaceae	Dicot
52	Adhatoda vasica	Acanthaceae	Dicot
53	Barleria cristata	Acanthaceae	Dicot
54	Lantana camara	Verbinaceae	Dicot
55	Ajuga bracteosa	Lamiaceae	Dicot
56	Ajuga parviflora	Lamiaceae	Dicot
57	Salvia lanata	Lamiaceae	Dicot
58	Origanum vulgare	Lamiaceae	Dicot
59	Plantago major	Plantaginaceae	Dicot
60	Cythula tomentosa	Amaranthaceae	Dicot
61	Achyranthus aspera	Amaranthaceae	Dicot
62	Fagopygon esculentum	Polygonaceae	Dicot
63	Polygonum capitatum	Polygonaceae	Dicot
64	Polygonum hydropiper	Polygonaceae	Dicot
65	Polygonum barbatum	Polygonaceae	Dicot
66	Rumex hastatus	Polygonaceae	Dicot
67	Populus ciliate	Salicaceae	Dicot
68	Salix lindleyana	Salicaceae	Dicot
69	Asparagus recemosus	Asparagaceae	Dicot
70	Cyperus rotundus	Cyperaceae	Monocot
71	Cyanodon dactylon	Poaceae	Monocot
72	Vitis himalayana	Vitaceae	Dicot
73	Viola serpens	Violaceae	Dicot
74	Paris polyphylla	Melanthiaceae	Monocot
75	Coriaira nepalensis	Coriariaceae	Dicot

           

DISCUSSION- The present study is conducted in the Doon valley located in the foothills of the Himalayas. It is flourished by a variety of habitats and has unique topography and climatic conditions. The Soil is generally medium loamy but its texture, moisture, and pH generally varies from place to place and with time. The pH of different habitats of Doon valley showed variation and at changing, pH different types of angiospermic families have been observed and documented. Mostly, the pH of soil was found to be acidic (5.5 - 6.8).

Due to anthropogenic activities viz. liming, land pollution, increasing traffic, urbanization, and industrialization etc pH of the soil is decreasing and seems, it will approach to more acidic in near future. The relation between soil and vegetation has been very important in natural woodland ecosystems. Vegetation once established natural or by human interference modifies soil developmental processes due to parent material, topography, and climate change etc. and hence soil and vegetation relation are dynamic.

Sahastradhara and Mussoorie are famous tourist places and mining areas, so highly disturbed by anthropogenic activities. The invasion of Lantana camara, Parthenium hysterophorus, Eupatorium adenophorum, and Ageratum conyzoides are abundant. The maximum dominance was found to be of Parthenium hysterophorus with a mean percentage cover of 15.5 followed by Lantana camera (mean cover 27.9%) ^[11], but now it had been found that Lantana had become a second threat to the western Himalayan forests due to its environmental plasticity as it adjusts bin all types of habitats. In the present study, we observed that the exotic species such as Lantana camara, Parthenium hysterophorus, Ageratum conyzoides, Eupatorium adenophorum, Murraya koenigii etc. have invaded the large area of Doon valley and disturbed the local vegetation to a large extent. The present findings are in agreed with the observations of Odum ^[7]; Dhyani and Joshi ^[12].

Variation in soil pH influences the plant growth and is affected by rainfall patterns. When pH reaches a value of 4 or bellows it limits the plant growth. Nutrient availability and microbial activities are favored by a soil pH ranging from 5.5 – 8.5 as per the studies of Uchida and Hue ^[13]; Sheik et al. ^[14].

Major factors influencing these changes are edaphic factors which include organic matter, nutrient content, soil pH, and climatic factors which include weather conditions weed competition etc. as per Arya ^[10]; Hassan and Marwat ^[15]. Distribution pattern an important aspect of ecological studies showed that all the three communities followed contagious distribution as per Odum ^[7]. We found that herbs were the most dominant habit followed by shrubs among all the plant forms follows to Sharma and Joshi ^[16].

Distribution pattern is an important aspect of ecological studies and in present study we find that all the three communities showed contagious distribution, and contagious distribution is the most common type of distribution and it occurs due to little but significant variation in environmental conditions, so in this way our study showed similar results as of Dhayani et al. ^[17].

 Therophytes were found to be in high percentage and it is an indication of influences such as grazing ^[18], and due to anthropogenic activities Manhas ^[19], which ensures the further invasion of therophytes. It is experienced that vegetation in a stress of biotic pressure gradually increases the percentage of therophytes. It is pertinent to state that the composition of phanerophytes and therophytes is close in this area, an increase in biotic pressure would change the biological spectrum to therophytes and phanerophytes vegetation occurred.

Climate change is a warning call and very well acknowledged threat today. As a result, of climate change unexpected results occur, each species will respond in an individual fashion according to its climate tolerance capacity and its ability to disperse into a new location, and the species which will not adopt will extinct. Rapid climate change favors the adoptability of those species that can tolerate a wide range of climatic conditions. This adaptability is shown by many invasive species in the study area as per the findings of Reshi ^[20]. Weeds such as Lantana camara, Parthenium hysterophorus, and Ageratum conyzoides have invaded and altered the community structure of native flora of the study area as per the findings of Rana ^[21]; Shigesada ^[22]. Climate change enhances the dimensions of invasive species to occupy the new areas, by disturbing the dynamic equilibrium maintaining them as per the observations of Walther ^[23]; Holt et al. ^[24].

 Our findings goes parallel to them we also find similar results of climate change and invasion of species such as Lantana camara, Ageratum conyzoides, Parthenium hysterophorus, Eupatorium adenophorum and  Murraya koenigii in abundance. Species diversity and its distribution along the altitudinal gradient has been a major subject of the ecosystem. The diverse altitudinal range and rapid changes in altitudinal gradient at very small distances and high endemism in Garhwal Himalaya make it interesting for studies ^[25]. As we move from higher to lower altitude biological diversity increases and vice versa on a mountain in a terrestrial ecosystem as per the findings of Singh and Singh ^[25].There are many broad ranges in the Garhwal Himalaya (<1500), High altitude specialist genera having mere species such as Delphinium, Ranunculus, Astragalus, Saxifraga, Sedum, Salix etc. are more abundant in high altitudes as compared to adjacent low altitudes, as per the findings of Joshi and Joshi ^[26]; Komar ^[27].

In the present study observation is similar to ^[10], he stated that soil is mainly black grey and brown in color, and in high elevation, it is of skeletal type. Soil temperature, texture, and pH varied with elevations and proportion of sand 40.7% to 47.2% increased somewhat with the increase in elevation. The Present study also suggests that the soil type found in Mussoorie is generally medium loamy but its composition, moisture, and pH generally varied from place to place. Higher silt in Mussoorie was due to higher precipitation in the form of winter snow above 1800 m Soil temperature in Mussoorie ranged from 4⁰C – 16⁰C, while that of Sahastradhara was 15 – 19⁰C. Soil organic matter content tended to be higher in high altitude and increased with increasing altitude respectively.

It is rather difficult to compare the results of the present study with other literatures. There is a need to make correlations between the availability of angiospermic plants with physicochemical and biological variables. The results and findings of the exercise are interpreted in the form of defined relationship between the variables in question and definite risk to climate change in question.

 

CONCLUSIONS- Geographical factors such as altitudinal variation is a major factor in species distribution, as we move to high altitude there is a decrease in species diversity, as up to an altitude of 5400 m plant growth is restricted. Although, Physico-chemical properties of forest soils vary in space and time because of variation in topography, climate, weathering process, vegetation cover and microbial activities, and several other biotic and abiotic factors Our finding observed that Soil temperature in Mussoorie ranged from 4⁰C-16⁰C, while that of Sahastradhara was 15⁰C-19⁰C Sudhowala 15⁰C -25⁰C, Soil organic matter content tended to be higher in high altitude and increased with increasing altitude. In the present study also stated that pH has a major effect on plant growth and distribution. It affects the plant nutrient availability by controlling their chemical forms. The optimum pH range for most of the plants is between 5.5-7, however many plants are adapted to thrive at pH slightly above or below this range. But when pH level falls to 4 it limits plant growth finally, we can say that ideal pH range for plant growth is between 6.0-8 and pH below 5.6 is not suitable for proper growth of the plant.

There are several ways to rise and decrease soil pH, hence in the light of lack of literature, it is rather difficult to compare the results of the present study with others. There is a need to make correlations between the availability of angiospermic plants with physicochemical and biological variables.

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT- Authors wish to acknowledge the kind hospitality and valuable contributions of the entire faculty in the Department of Botany, Alpine Institute Management Technology, Dehradun during this field study. We are also highly grateful to Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Dehradun, for identifying some of our plant specimens.

 

CONTRIBUTION OF AUTHORS

Dr. Narendra Kumar- Data collection, Data analysis, Research concept, Writing article, Research design,

Supervision, and Final approval.

Dr. Kartik Uniyal- Materials collection, Critical review, and Article editing.

Mr. Zakir Nazir- Data collection and Literature search.

 

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